Ethics Essay Essay Example for Free

Ethics Essay EssayThere argon different systems in which an individual or a company could shuffling ethical decisions. They can vary depending on the issue at hand and they plug in and different in certain ways. In this writing I leave alone compare the similarities and differences between virtue theory, utilitarianism, and deontological ethics. I willing include a description of the differences in how each theory addresses ethics and pietism. And I will come apart a private experience to explain the relationship between virtue, values, and moral concepts as they relate to one of the three theories. Ethical systems based on nip values are described as virtue theory.Virtue theory is based on character ethics. It is the viewpoint that in living ones living one should try to cultivate excellence in all they do and in all that other do. This is the system that would address ethics and morality from the perspective of living with high values and with great character (Boylan, 2009). Quoting Boylan (2009) from our book, Utilitarianism is a theory that suggests that an action is morally right when that action produces more total utility-grade for the group than any other alternative (pp. 153). Utilitarianism focuses on what is best for the group or team as a whole. This theory asks, What ethical decision will profit the most for the largest amount of people? Deontology is a moral theory that emphasizes ones duty to do a particular action notwithstanding because the action, itself, is inherently right and not through any other sorts of calculations (Boylan, 2009). Calculations like what the consequences of that action might be. Deontology is a duty-based theory when addressing ethics and morality.In comparing these three, a utilitarian working for ATT might overlook a bad credit report to make a deal because the deal would help the company and theclient. therefrom its a win-win. A deontologist might make the same decision based on the fact that the clien t needs a cell squall to be able to take care of business in order to take of her tiddlerren. The simple fact that the action is inherently right regardless of the consequences is the bases for the deontologist. And to the foreign only a clear worker would have integrity and do what was in the best interest of the company. A personal experience of mine to relate these topics would be a girlfriend of mine just got out of a bad relationship where she was not married, but had a child with this man.She lived with the father of her child for many years although he was abusive and was providing home that was unsafe and insufficient for her and her child. She stayed for many years making decisions as a utilitarian until one solar day she changed to a deontologist. She chose to leave the state and ignore the rights of the father on the grounds that he was abusing both her and her son. She valued her and her sons health over anything. She was virtuous in that she rose above the desire t o retaliate and pursued only their protection. And all of her actions where based on her moral concepts, according to her beliefs and understanding.In conclusion, there are many different theories and ways to make ethical decisions. I have related and compared the virtue theory, utilitarianism, and deontology. I have also shared a personal experience to relate virtue, values, and moral concepts to one of these theories. Life and business are about making decisions and these concepts and theories are a foundation to a healthy life and a healthy business.ReferencesThompson, S. (2014). What is the relationship among virtue, values moral concepts in individual and business contexts?. Retrieved from http//smallbusiness.chron.com/relationship-among-virtue-values-moral-concepts-individual-business-contexts-69097.html Boylan, M. (2009). Basic Ethics. Prentice Hall.

Real Time Pcr Essay Example for Free

Real Time Pcr EssayPROBE-BASED detection SYSTEMS14 Hybridization dig intos ( as well as called FRET probes)16 MELTING frizzle ANALYSIS16 Multiplex real time PCR18 APPLICATIONS OF substantive judgment of conviction PCR18 GENE EXPRESSION ANALYSIS18 SNP GENOTYPING19 human immunodeficiency virus DETECTION19 CYSTIC FIBROSIS (CF) DETECTION20 THE ADVANTAGES OF received- cartridge holder PCR20 THE DISADVANTAGES21 REFRENCES21 REAL TIME PCR TRADITIONAL PCR The polymerase chemical chain reaction (PCR) is peerless of the near powerful technologies in molecular biology. Using PCR, detail whiles within a deoxyribonucleic sexually transmitted disease or complementary deoxyribonucleic acid template can be copied, or amplified, umteen thousand- to a millionfold.In traditional (end shoot) PCR, spying and quantitation of the amplified sequence are performed at the end of the reaction after the last PCR cycle, and involve post-PCR analysis such as gel electrophoresis and image analysi s. REAL-TIME QUANTITATIVE PCR (qPCR) In real-time quantitative PCR (qPCR), the arrive of PCR product is measu red ink at each cycle. This ability to monitoring device the reaction during its exponential cast enables users to determine the initial amount of target with great precision. WHATS WRONG WITH AGAROSE GELS? * Poor precision. * Low sensitivity. Short dynamic break away lt 2 logs. * Low re issue. * Non-automated. * Size-based dissimilarity only * Ethidium bromide staining is non very(prenominal) quantitative REAL TIME PCR VS PCR . BASIC PRINCIPLE Quantitative PCRis carried come to the fore in athermic cyclerwith the content to illuminate each sample with a beam of light of a specified wavelength and detect the fluorescence emitted by the unrestrainedfluorochrome. The thermal cycler is also able to rapidly heat and chill samples thereby taking advantage of the physicochemical properties of thenucleic acidsand deoxyribonucleic acid polymerase.The PCR process genera lly consists of a series of temperature changes that are repeated 25 40 times, these cycles normally consist of three coifs the first, at around 95C, allows the separation of the nucleic acids double chain the second, at a temperature of around 50-60C, allows the alignment of the primers with the DNA templatethe third at betwixt 68 72C, facilitates thepolymerizationcarried out by the DNA polymerase In real-time PCR, * the amount of DNA is measured after each cycle by the use of light markers that are incorporated into the PCR product. The increase in fluorescent signal is directly proportional to the number of PCR product molecules (amplicons) generated in the exponential phase of the reaction. * Fluorescent reporters use include double-stranded DNA (dsDNA)- binding tints, or color molecules attached to PCR primers or probes that are incorporated into the product during amplification. * The change in fluorescence everyplace the course of the reaction is measured by an instr ument that combines thermal pass with scanning capability.By plotting fluorescence against the cycle number, the real-time PCR instrument gene place an amplification plot that re frames the accumulation of product everywhere the duration of the entire PCR reaction ( betoken 1). Figure 1Amplification plots are created when the fluorescent signal from each sample is plan against cycle number therefore, amplification plots represent the accumulation of product over the duration of the real-time PCR experiment. The samples existence amplified in this example are a dilution series of the template. TYPES OF PCRQuantitative PCR Qualitative qPCR A limited or non- peculiar(prenominal) detection chemical science allows the quantification ofthe amplified product. In qualitative qPCR, the goal is to detect the presence or absence of a certain sequence. The amount detected at a certain point of the slope is directly related to theinitial amount of target in the sample For virus sub-typ ing and bacterial species identification. Can also be employ for allelic discrimination between wild type and mutant, between diametrical SNPs or between different splicing forms. common pplications of quantitative PCR are gene looking analysis, pathogen detection/quantification and microribonucleic acid quantification Different fluorophores can be apply for the 2 alleles, and the ratio of the fluorophores signals correlates to the related amount of one form compared to the other one. Quantitative PCR software uses the exponential phase of PCR for quantification. Specific detection rules such as Double-Dye probe systems are more often use for theseApplications Overview of real-time PCR real-time PCR is a variation of the example PCR technique used to quantify DNA or ribonucleic acid in a sample.Using sequence-specific primers, the relative number of copies of a particular DNA or ribonucleic acid sequence can be determined.. Quantification of amplified product is obtained using fluorescent probes or fluorescent DNA binding dyes and real time PCR instruments that measure fluorescence while execute temperature changes needed for the PCR cycles. qPCR STEPS There are three major steps that make up a qPCR reaction. Reactions are generally run for 40 cycles. 1. DenaturationThe temperature should be appropriate to the polymerase chosen (usually 95C).The denaturation time can be increased if template GC content is high. 2. AnnealingUse appropriate temperatures based on the calculated releaseing temperature (Tm) of the primers (5C below the Tm of the primer). 3. ExtensionAt 7072C, the activity of the DNA polymerase is optimal, and primer extension occurs at rates of up to 100 bases per second. When an amplicon in qPCR is small, this step is often combined with the annealing step using 60C as the temperature. BASICS OF REAL TIME PCR Baseline The baseline phase contains all the amplification that is below the level of detection of the real time instrument.T hreshold where the threshold and the amplification plot baffle defines CT. Can be set manually/automatically CT (cycle threshold) the cycle number where the fluorescence passes the threshold Rn (Rn-baseline) NTC no template control Rn is plotted against cycle numbers to produce the amplification curves and gives the CT value. ONE-STEP OR TWO-STEP REACTION qRT-PCR can be one step or two step. 1. cardinal-step qRT-PCR Two-step qRT-PCR starts with the reverse transcription of either total ribonucleic acid or poly(A)+ RNA into complementary DNA using a reverse transcriptase (RT).This first-strand cDNA subtraction reaction can be primed using random hexamers, oligo(dT), or gene-specific primers (GSPs). To give an equal representation of all targets in real-time PCR applications and to countermand the 3? prejudice of oligo(dT), it is usually recommended that random hexamers or a mixture of oligo(dT) and random hexamers are used. The temperature used for cDNA synthesis depends on the RT enzyme chosen. Following the first-strand synthesis reaction, the cDNA is transferred to a separate tube for the qPCR reaction. In general, only 10% of the first strand reaction is used for each qPCR. . virtuoso-step qRT-PCR One-step qRT-PCR combines the first-strand cDNA synthesis reaction and qPCR reaction in the comparable tube, simplifying reaction setup and reducing the possibility of contamination. Gene-specifi c primers (GSP) are required. This is because using oligo(dT) or random primers result generate nonspecific products in the one-step procedure and subdue the amount of product of interest. Overview of qPCR and qRT-PCR components This voice provides an overview of the major reaction components and parameters snarled in real-time PCR experiments. * DNA polymerase One of the important factors affecting PCR specificity is the fact that Taq DNA polymerase has residual activity at low temperatures. Primers can anneal nonspecifically to DNA, allowing the polymera se to synthesize nonspecific product. The hassle of nonspecific products resulting from mispriming can be minimized by using a hot-start enzyme. Using a hot-start enzyme ensures that no active Taq is present during reaction setup and the initial DNA denaturation step. * Template Anywhere from 10 to 1,000 copies of template nucleic acid should be used for each real-time PCR reaction. This is equivalent to approximately 100 pg to 1 ? of genomic DNA, or cDNA, generated from 1 pg to 100 ng of total RNA. Excess template may increase the amount of contaminants and narrow efficiency. If the template is RNA, care should be taken to reduce the chance of genomic DNA contamination. One option is to treat the template with DNaseI. Ultrapure, intact RNA is essential for full-length, high-quality cDNA synthesis and accurate mRNA quantification. RNA should be devoid of any RNase contamination, and aseptic conditions should be maintained. * Reverse transcriptase The reverse transcriptase (RT) is as critical to the success of qRT-PCR as the DNA polymerase.It is alpha to choose an RT that not only provides high yields of full-length cDNA but also has good activity at high temperatures. High-temperature performance is also very important for tackling RNA with secondary structure or when working with gene-specific primers (GSPs). * dNTPs It is recommended that both the dNTPs and the Taq DNA polymerase be purchased from the same vendor, as it is not uncommon to see shifts of one full threshold cycle (Ct) in experiments that employ these items from separate vendors. * Magnesium concentration In qPCR, magnesium chloride or magnesium sulfate is typically used at a fi nal concentration of 3 mM.This concentration works well for intimately targets however, the optimal magnesium concentration may vary between 3 and 6 mM. * UNG The Uracil-N-Glycosylase is an enzyme that hydrolyses all single-stranded and double-stranded DNA containing dUTPs. Consequently, if all PCR amplifications are performed in the presence of a dNTPs/dUTPs blend, by carrying a UNG step before every run it is possible to get rid of any previous PCR product. * ROX Some thermocyclers require MasterMix containing ROX dye for normalization. This is the case for the ABI and Eppendorf machines, and optional on the Stratagene machines.If you work with such machines, it is easier to work with the ROX dye already incorporated in the MasterMix rather than adding it manually. It guarantees a high level of reproducibility and homogeneity of your balks. * Fluorescein For iCycler iQ, My iQ and iQ5 machines (BioRad thermocyclers), the normalization method for SYBR Green chit uses Fluorescein to create a virtual background. As in the case for the ROX, it is better and easier to use a MasterMix that contains pre-diluted Fluorescein, guaranteeing higher reproducibility and homogeneity of your assays. REAL TIME PCR SYSTEMSystem Features Four interchangeable block formats Optional Automation Accessory amp B arcode Scanner Argon ion laser/CCD camera swooning to Use Software, Multiple Applications Set up Wizards QC Filtering/Flag System Flexible data reports amp exporting SOFTWARES FOR DATA ANALYSIS AND PRIMER DESIGNING 1 ) Light Cycler Relative Quantification Software The first commercially available software was the Light Cycler Relative Quantification Software (2001). 2 ) REST In 2002, the relative expression software tool (REST ) was established as a new tool. 3 ) Q-GeneRecently a second software tool, Q-Gene, was developed, which is able to perform a statistical test of the real-time data. Q-Gene manages and expedites the planning, performance and evaluation of quantitative real-time PCR experiments. 4) OligoPerfect A primer design software program such as OligoPerfect, available on the Web at www. invitrogen. com/oligoperfect, can automatically evaluate a target sequence and design primers for it based on the criteria STEPS OF REAL TIME PCR Real-time reaction mix (final conce ntrations) 1x 2 x AmpliTaq Gold 0. 5 ? M 5 primer 0. 5 ? M 3 primer 0. 2 ? M probe 0. 4 ? Rox reference dye 20 ? l Final Volume (including sample and dH20) STANDARD REAL-TIME PCR PROTOCOL checkout DESIGN This persona describes the stages of real-time PCR assay design and implementation. We will identify sources of variability, the role they play in data accuracy, and guidelines for optimization in the following areas 1Target amplicon and primer design 2. Nucleic acid purification 3. Reverse transcription 4. Controls and normalization 5. Standard curve evaluation of efficiency, sensitivity, and reproducibility Good primer (pair) properties One way to minimize efficiency bias is to amplify relatively short targets.Amplifying a 100 bp region is more likely to result in complete synthesis in a disposed(p) cycle than, say, amplifying a 1,200 bp target. For this reason, real-time PCR target lengths are generally in the range of 60 bp to 200 bp. In addition, shorter amplicons act as a buff er against variations in template integrity. Primers designed to amplify larger regions are less likely to anneal with the same fragment in a moderately degraded nucleic acid sample. PURIFICATION Phenol-based organic extraction is a very effective method for purifying RNA from a wide variety of kiosk and tissue types.During sample lysis, phenol and guanidine isothiocyanate disrupt cells and dissolve cell components. while maintaining the integrity of the nucleic acids by protecting them from RNases. Chloroform is added and the mixture is separated by centrifugation, which separates the solution into an aqueous phase and an organic phase. RNA remains exclusively in the aqueous phase in the presence of guanidine isothiocyanate, while DNA and protein are goaded into the organic phase and interphase. The RNA is then recovered from the aqueous phase by precipitation with isopropyl alcohol. REVERSE TRANSCRIPTION CONSIDERATIONSMost reverse transcriptases employed in qRT-PCR are deri ved from avian myeloblastosis virus (AMV) or Moloney murine leukemia virus (M-MLV). An ideal reverse transcriptase will exhibit the following attributes * Ther most(prenominal)ability thermostable RTs function at the higher end of (or above) this range and allow for successful reverse transcription of GC-rich regions. * RNase H activity RNase H activity can drastically reduce the yield and ratio of full-length cDNA, which translates to poor sensitivity. Several RTs, most notably SuperScript II and III, have been engineered for reduced RNase H activity. NORMALIZATION AND QUANTIFICATIONWhen analyzing and comparing results of Real-Time qPCR assays many researchers are confronted with several uncontrolled variables, which can lead to misinterpretation of the results. Those uncontrolled variables can be the amount of starting material, enzymatic efficiencies, and differences between tissues, individuals or experimental conditions. In order to make a good comparison, normalization can be used as a correction method, for these variables. The most commonly k instantern and used ways of normalization are * normalization to the original number of cells, * normalization to the total RNA mass, normalization to one or more housekeeping genes, * normalization to an internal or external calibrator. Normalization to number of cells can actually only be done for cell destination and blood samples. The two majors methods of normalization are the absolute quantification and the relative quantification . Absolute quantification Absolute quantification requires a standard curve of known copy numbers. The amplicon being studied can be cloned, or a synthetic oligonucleotide (RNA or DNA) can be used. The standard must be amplified using the same primers as the gene of interest and must amplify with the same efficiency.The standards must also be quantified accurately. This can be carried out by reading the absorbance at A260, although this does not distinguish between DNA and RNA, or by using a fluorescent ribonucleic acid stain such as RiboGreen. Relative quantification Relative quantification is the most widely used technique. Gene expression levels are calculated by the ratio between the amount of target gene and an endogenous reference gene, which is present in all samples. The reference gene has to be chosen so that its expression does not change under the experimental conditions or between different tissue.There are simple and more complex methods for relative quantification, depending on the PCR efficiency, and the number of reference genes used. STANDARD CURVE TO ASSESS EFFICIENCY, SENSITIVITY, AND REPRODUCIBILITY The final stage before assay employment is validating that all the experimental design parameters result in a highly efficient, sensitive, and reproducible experiment. * Reaction efficiency One hundred percent efficiency corresponds to a perfect doubling of template at every cycle, but the acceptable range is 90110% for assay validation.This efficiency range corresponds to standard curve slopes of 3. 6 to 3. 1. The graph in Figure shows the measurement bias resulting solely from differences in reaction efficiency.. A standard curve is generated by plotting a dilution series of template against the Ct for each dilution. To some, sensitivity is measured by how early a target Ct appears in the amplification plot. However, the true gauge of sensitivity of an assay is whether a given low amount of template fits to the standard curve while maintaining a preferred efficiency. The most dilute sample that fits determines reaction sensitivity.The standard curve also includes an R2 value, which is a measure of replicate reproducibility. Standard curves may be repeated over time to assess whether the consistency, and therefore the data accuracy for the samples. Real-Time PCR Fluorescence Detection Systems Several different fluorescence detection technologies can be used for realtime PCR, and each has specific assay design require ments. All are based on the generation of a fluorescent signal that is proportional to the amount of PCR product formed. The three main fluorescence detection systems are * DNA-binding agents (e. g. SYBR Green and SYBR GreenER technologies * Fluorescent primers (e. g. , LUX Fluorogenic Primers and Amplifluor qPCR primers) * Fluorescent probes (e. g. , TaqMan probes, Scorpions, Molecular Beacons) The detection method plays a critical role in the success of real-time PCR. DNA-Binding Dyes The most common system for detection of amplified DNA is the use of intercalating dyes that fluoresce when butt on to dsDNA. SYBR Green I and SYBR GreenER technologies use this type of detection method. The fluorescence of DNA-binding dyes importantly increases when bound to double-stranded DNA (dsDNA).The intensity of the fluorescent signal depends on the amount of dsDNA that is present. As dsDNA accumulates, the dye generates a signal that is proportional to the DNA concentration and can be detect ed using real-time PCR instruments. SYBR Green I advantages Low cost assay Easy design and set up SYBR Green I disadvantages Non specific system Not adapted to multiplex Non suitable for qualitative qPCR Primer-Based Detection Systems Primer-based fluorescence detection technologies can provide highly sensitive and specific detection of DNA and RNA.In these systems, the fluorophores is attached to a target-specific PCR primer that increases in fluorescence when incorporated into the PCR product during amplification. * Amplifluor Real-Time PCR Primers Amplifluor real-time PCR primers are designed with both a fluorophore and quencher on the same primer. The primer adopts a hairpin configuration that brings the fluorophore in exclude proximity to the quencher. The fluorescent signal increases when the primer is unfolded and the fluorophore and quencher are de-coupled during incorporation into an amplification product.Figure Ampliflour primer PROBE-BASED DETECTION SYSTEMS Probe-ba sed systems provide highly sensitive and specifi c detection of DNA and RNA. However, dual-labeling and complex design specifi cations make them expensive and more diffi cult to use than primer-based systems or DNAbinding dyes. TaqMan probes = Double-Dye probes TaqMan probes, also called Double-Dye Oligonucleotides, Double-Dye Probes, or Dual Labelled probes, are the most widely used type of probes. A fluorophore is attached to the 5 end of the probe and a quencher to the 3 end.The fluorophores is excited by the machine and passes its energy, via FRET (Fluorescence Resonance Energy Transfer) to the quencher. TaqMan probes can be used for both quantification and mutation detection, and most designs appear to work well. TaqMan ASSAY DENATURATION ANNEALING OF PRIMERS AND PROBE POLYMERIZATION AND PROBE CLEAVAGE Molecular Beacons In addition to two sequence-specific primers, molecular beacon light assays employ a sequence-specific, fluorescently labeled oligonucleotide probe called a mol ecular beacon, which is a dye-labeled oligonucleotide (2540 nt) that forms a hairpin structure with a stem and a loop .A fluorescent reporter is attached to the 5 end of the molecular beacon and a quencher is attached to the 3 end. The loop is designed to hybridize specifically to a 1530 nucleotide section of the target sequence Figure Moleculer Beacon They are highly specific, can be used for multiplexing, and if the target sequence does not match the beacon sequence exactly, crosswalk and fluorescence will not occur a desirable quality for allelic discrimination experiments. Hybridization probes (also called FRET probes) Roche has developed hybridization probes for use with their LightCycler.Two probes are designed to bind adjacent to one another on the amplicon. One has a 3 label of FAM, whilst the other has a 5 LC dye, LC red 640 or 705. When the probes are not bound to the target sequence, the fluorescent signal from the reporter dye is not detected. However, when the probes h ybridize to the target sequence during the PCR annealing step, the close proximity of the two fluorophores allows energy transfer from the donor to the acceptor dye, resulting in a fluorescent signal that is detected. FRET probe principle and light cyclerMELTING CURVE ANALYSIS Melting curve analysis can only be performed with real-time PCR detection technologies in which the fluorophore remains associated with the amplicon. Amplifications that have used SYBR Green I or SYBR GreenER dye primers can be subjected to melting curve analysis. Dual-labeled probe detection systems such as TaqMan probes are not compatible because they produce an irreversible change in signal by cleaving and releasing the fluorophore into solution during the PCR however, the increased specificity of this method makes this less of a concern.The level of fluorescence of both SYBR Green I and SYBR GreenER dyes significantly increases upon binding to dsDNA. By monitoring the dsDNA as it melts, a decrease in fluor escence will be seen as soon as the DNA becomes single-stranded and the dye dissociates from the DNA. Figure Melting curve analysis can detect the presence of nonspecifc products, as shown by the additional peaks to the left of the peak for the amplified product in the melt curve. How to perform melting curve analysisTo perform melting curve analysis, the real-time PCR instrument can be programmed to include a melting visibility immediately following the thermocycling protocol. After amplification is complete, the instrument will reheat your amplified products to give complete melting curve data. Most real-time PCR instrument platforms now incorporate this feature into their analysis packages. In general, the program steps will be 1. Rapid heating of the amplified sample to 94C to denature the DNA. 2. modify the sample to 60C. 3.Slowly heating (by increasing the temperature 0. 2C/second) the sample while plotting fluorescence signal vs. temperature. (As the temperature increases an d the dsDNA strands melt, the fluorescence signal will decrease. ) Figure Example of a melting curve thermal profile setup on an Applied Biosystems instrument (rapid heating to 94C to denature the DNA, followed by cooling to 60C. ) Multiplex real-time PCR In multiplex real-time PCR, more than one set of gene-specific primers is used to amplify separate genes from the template DNA or RNA in a single tube.Typically, multiplex reactions are used to amplify a gene of interest and a housekeeping gene (e. g. , -actin or GAPDH), which is used as a normalize for the reaction. Because more than one PCR product will be quantified in the same tube, different fluorescent reporter dyes are used to label the separate primers or probes for each gene. More Samples Analyzed per Plate. Target and normalizer in same reaction and Less sample consumed. APPLICATIONS OF REAL TIME PCR GENE EXPRESSION ANALYSIS A sample gene expression analysis using a multiplex TaqMan assay is presented in the following sec tions.In this example, were interested in the relative expression of three genes in the polyamine biosynthesis pathway, ornithine decarboxylase (ODC), ODC antizyme (OAZ), and antizyme inhibitor (AZI), in two different samples, sample A and sample B. 1. RNA was isolated from sample A and sample B. 2. RNA was reverse transcribed into cDNA. 3. The amount of the target genes (ODC, OAZ, and AZI) and the reference gene (b-actin) was determined in each of the cDNA samples using a multiplex qPCR assay. 4. Data were analyzed and the relative expression of each of the target genes in the two samples was calculated.EXAMPLE BRCA1 is a gene involved in tumor suppression. BRCA1 controls the expression of other genes. In order to monitor level of expression of BRCA1, real-time PCR is used. SNP GENOTYPING In order to perform SNP genotyping, two specific probes labeled with different dyes are used, the first for the wild type allele and the second for the mutant allele. If the assay results in the g eneration of only the first fluorescent color, then the individual is homozygous wild type at that locus. If the assay results in the generation of only the second fluorescent color, then the individual is homozygous mutant.And finally, if both fluorescent colors are produced, then the individual is heterozygous. At the end of the reaction, hydrolysis probes are digested. The quality of a hydrolysis probe is given by the hybridization efficiency, the quenching of the intact probe and the cleavage activity of Taq polymerase. HIV DETECTION Nowadays HIV is strikingly spreading out whole the world. so in order to diminish its distribution , it is necessary to detect it as soon as possible amp for this purpose, Real time PCR is recommended by scientist. In this method , pol gen of the virus, is amplified in thermocycler. 6 patient have been studied. infection in these patients was confirmed by ELISA amp western blot. * Sampling amp RNA extracting from patients. * Cloning of target segmen t by using Xba I amp Hind III. And 180 bp primers. * Standard virus mRNA was extracted. * Quantitative analysis of HIV virus by SYBR-green Real Time RT-PCR. CYSTIC FIBROSIS (CF) DETECTION Cystic fibrosis (CF) is the most common inherited disease among Caucasian populations with an incidence of 1 in 2500 births. A3 base pair (bp) deletion, designated DF508, accounts for nearly 70% of CF cases and causes severe manifestations of the disease.It results in the absence of phenylalanine at position 508 of the cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR) protein and this error prevents normal touch and translocation of the polypeptide chain to apical membranes of epithelial cells. This deletion can be detected by molecular beacons in real time PCR. FigureExamples of specific molecular beacon fluorescence increase during real-time PCR in samples containing single lymphoblasts homozygous normal for CF (green), heterozygous DF508 (blue), or homozygous DF508 (red). A) Fluorescen t signal from the molecular beacon detecting the normal allele. (B) Fluorescent signal from the molecular beacon detecting the DF508 allele. Dashed lines indicate the threshold of 200 units (10 SD above baseline readings) used for determining CT values. THE ADVANTAGES OF REAL-TIME PCR * The ability to monitor the progress of the PCR reaction as it occurs in real time * The ability to precisely measure the amount of amplicon at each cycle * An increased dynamic range of detection * The combination of amplification and detection in a single tube, which eliminates post-PCR manipulations.Rapid cycling times (1 hour) * High sample throughput (200 samples/day) * Low contamination risk (sealed reactions) * Very sensitive (3pg or 1 genome eq of DNA) * Broad dynamic range (10 1010 copies) * Reproducible (CV lt 2. 0 %) * Allows for quantitation of results * Software driven operation * No more expensive than in house PCR ($15/test) THE DISADVANTAGES * Current technology has limited capacity f or multiplexing. Simultaneous detection of 2 targets is the limit. * Development of protocols needs high level of technical skill and/or support. Requires RampD capacity and with child(p)) * High capital equipment costs ($ 50,000 -160,000). REFRENCES * http//www. icmb. utexas. edu/core/DNA/qPCR/QiagenRT-PCR. pdf www. icmb. utexas. edu * http//books. google. com. pk/books? id=-v-U-mXWg-gCampprintsec=frontcoverampdq=real+time+pcramphl=enampsa=Xampei=Bph1UezKIceDhQeUh4CwCAampved=0CDAQ6AEwAQv=onepageampq=real%20time%20pcrampf=false books. google. com. pk * PCR/Real-Time PCR Protocols www. protocol-online. org Real-Time Pcr An Essential Guide Google Books books. google. com * * http//www. gene-quantification. e/bio-rad-CFX96-bulletin-5589. pdf www. gene-quantification. de * https//www. google. com. pk/output=searchampsclient=psy-abampq=fret+rt-qpcrampoq=fret+in+rtampgs_l=serp. 1. 1. 0i22i30l2. 1583. 4622. 1. 10196. 6. 6. 0. 0. 0. 0. 551. 2584. 3-3j1j2. 6. 0 0. 0 1c. 1. 9. serp. 97Wjtm9 UCU4amppsj=1ampbav=on. 2,or. r_cp. r_qf. ampfp=f6d28cf5fd703914ampbiw=1366ampbih=600 www. google. com. pk * BioTechniques Real-time PCR for mRNA quantitation www. biotechniques. com * http//env1. gist. ac. kr/joint_unugist/file/g_class11_real_time_pcr_vt. pdf env1. gist. ac. kr

Are Capital Asset Pricing Model Useful Finance Essay

Are Capital Asset Pricing Model Useful Finance EssayThe CAPM fashion model has gener altogethery been attributed to William Sharpe, but John Lintner and Jan Mossin too made similar individual derivations in 1960s. As a result of the model is pull down known as Sharpe-Lintner-Mossin (SLM) smashing asset price model. The CAPM explains the birth that should exist between the securities expected overhaul and their risk about security occurs. It is a direct extension of the portfolio models developed by Markowitz and Sharpe. CAPM derives the comparisonship between essential rate of submits and the organized risk of individual securities and portfolios. The model explains how different securities or assets in the capital grocery are priced. The CAPM provides an explicit measure of the risk aid. The CAPM passel be expressed as followsThe portfolio that contains all the securities in the economy is called the market portfolio and it plays a crucial role in CAPM. The CAPM is th e theoretical relationship that should hold for all securities and portfolios, both efficient and inefficient. The CAPM when plotted on a graph gives a line as depictedThe graphical version of CAPM is also known as Security market line (SML). The SML represents the relationship between of import factor and the expected rate of return f a security. This is also called risk-free rate. In equilibrium, all securities and portfolios plots should lie on the CAPM line. Capital asset pricing model has the following implicationsRisk-return relationship for individual asset/securities.Identification of under and overvalued assets traded.Pricing of assets which gift not yet traded in the market.Effect of leverage on make up of integrity (rate of return required by equity shareholder)Capital budget decisions and constitute of capital. (Source Capital asset pricing model Portfolio management from ICFAI publication page no.91)The CAPM has a variant of applications. Capital asset pricing mod el employ for decisions relating to portfolio evaluation, capital expenditure, financing etc. The CAPM determines the toll of capital for discounting of proximo(a) cash flows. CAPM is even assist in risk implications of mergers and acquisitions, product mixes and some more. CAPM has been the most widely employ method in finance. Since the 1990s the CAPM has been started to be employ in the calculation of risk-adjusted discount rate which has been a major contribution for capital budgeting. Capital budgeting is a key input for any organization so as to know the cost of capital for which companies use CAPM as they need market risk premium for calculating cost of capital. At present all MBA courses teach CAPM so as to calculate cost of capital. However the classic method for capital budgeting is to suck up Net Present Value (NPV). (Source Bierman, H.J., 1993, Capital BudgetingA Survey, Financial Management 22, 24) Investors should be cautious when applying the model to estimate assets returns and to evaluate couchment performance.Empirical appraisal of CAPMThe CAPM was developed on the basis of a set of unrealistic trusts as the assumptions are not correct in their entirety. The CAPM must be tested through confirmable observation and validated before it can be used with any real confidence. The empirical test should look for the key results first, the coercive relationship between returns and systematic risk and should appear to be linear. Second, test should attempt to assess the importance of market and company specific risk. Third, whether research questions on CAPM is conceptually possible. AT come through CAPM if valid impart assist in financial decisions. However, when analysis of bond is done, they do not plot on the SML. (Source 80 International Research ledger of Finance and political economy Issue 4 (2006))Empirical analysis is done to evaluate the assets, their risk, analyze and to be placed in respective place. Then only bank vault ra tes can be calculated for the project to be undertaken. (Jagannathan and McGrattan 1995.Limitations of CAPMCAPM is a useful model in dealing with the risk. However, it suffers from many Limitations firstly the calculation of beta factor is very tedious as lot of information is required. The beta factor can be found by examining the securitys historical returns relative to the return of the market portfolio. Further, the beta factor may or may not reflect the future variability of returns. The assumptions of CAPM are hypothetical and are impractical. For example, the assumption of borrowed and bestow at the same rate is imaginary and not practical. In practice the borrowing rates are higher than the lending rates. Secondly the earlier tests understanded positive relation between returns and betas. However, the relationship was not strong as predicted by CAPM. All empirical studies testing CAPM become a conceptual problem. CAPM is an ex-ante model that is information on expected prices are taken to test CAPM. Unfortunately, in practice the researchers or analyst have to work with the actual past (ex-post) data which will put up bias in the empirical results. (Source capital asset pricing model www.ezinearticles.com)Third beta is used as a measure for the securitys future risk. However there is no future data or information is available with the investors to calculate the beta. Hence, these investors take the help of past data to estimate the future prices of shares and the market portfolio. Thus, investors estimate beta using the historical data. One cannot expect the beta factor to be constant over conviction. It must be updated frequently. And at the same time CAPM is unable to capture the risk just only with the help of beta. (Source capital-asset-pricing-model, www. professional-edu.blogspot.com)Fourth CAPM assumes that the returns on the investments are valuate free. However in todays life the assumption is wrong as investments are subject to capital gain taxes and further adding transaction costs. And the taxes depends on the amount of return higher the return higher the tax and lower the return and lower the tax. Fifth The CAPM has the assumption that the transaction costs are zero but it is not as such. In the capital market there is transaction cost for every transaction done, some investments hover below or above line which is discouraged due the transaction costs. And many investments involve significant transaction costs such as acquiring a business or real estate. (Stambaugh, R. F. 1999. Predictive regressions. Journal of Financial Economics 54) Doubt began to arise when taking a close look at the assumptions and these are reinforced by the empirical tests. The model focuses on market quite an than total risk is clearly a useful way of thinking about the riskiness of assets in general. We do not know precisely how t measure any of the inputs required to implement the CAPM. This input should be ex ante but we only have ex post info available. The estimates used in the CAPM are subject to large errors.DebateThe CAPM has been attractive in measuring the risk and return relation since three decades. With the help of CAPM the rate of return on different securities can be compared by the investor. With the comparison of expected rate of return on different securities investors/firms can wisely decide to invest in portfolio so as to maximize the return with minimizing the risk. (Source CAPM from Book Financial Management by I M Pandey. But unfortunately, the empirical record is too poor to validate the way it to be used. The models problems may be due to theoretical failing or the unrealistic assumptions and the difficulties faces in applying the valid model. The model has been 1959 and since decades concerns have been raised on the number of studies about the model. There has been no historical relationship between returns and the risk i.e. the betas. (Source Fama and French 1992) The conclusion interp reted from the statistical findings. The data are noisy to invalidate the CAPM. (Source Christensen and Mendelson 1992 and Black 1993. Despite criticisms, the general reaction has been to focus on alternative asset pricing models. (Fama and French 1992. The economist show lack of empirical support for the CAPM which may be due to inappropriateness of assumptions made to facilitate the empirical test. For example, the return on stock market indices is skillful proxy for return on market portfolio but do not capture all assets in the economy such as human capital. genus Beta calculated for diversified portfolios are more accurate than that of the individual securities as grouping shrink beta range and hence reduces statistical power.To improve the empirical testing of CAPM numerous changes had been done in the past overcome the limitations or even to look for the subsequent alternate model to validate. At the same time the researchers and practitioners have began to look for multi-be ta models that overcome the shortcomings of the CAPM. Fama and French (1992) and Fama and MacBeth (1973) use the same procedure but the results are totally different from each other. The former has no relation at one hand and the later has a positive relation between return and risk. Everyone is in a debate of whether to follow CAPM model or not? Where the companies even use CAPM for their capital budgeting process. But still some academic feels that those who choose the CAPM will actually not be getting unreal advice. (Source Eugene F. Fama and Kenneth R. French, Journal of Finance, Vol. 47, 1992, 427-465)The model is often used for looking the performance of mutual funds and other portfolios. One of the big problem is forming portfolio by sorting stocks on the basis of price ratios but the average returns do not relate to market betas. ((Lakonishok, Shleifer and Vishny, 1994, Fama and French, 1996, 1998).) At NYSE, NASDAQ from 1963 to 2003 the average return on the book to market equity ratio portfolio rises monotonically from 10.1% p.a. to 16.7% for ten portfolios in U.S. securities but the positive relation between beta and return predicted by the model was absent. Whereas all NYSE stocks between 1931-1965 estimated that the results were uniform with the CAPM model. (Black, Jensen and Scholes 1972)ConclusionCAPM has been facing a lot of criticism in the recent times still it remains a useful tool for many i.e. for estimating the cost of capital, investment performance evaluation and efficient market event studies (Moyer et al 2001204 Campbell et al 1997183). In some of the recent empirical studies CAPM is said to be invalid. The CAPM is give tongue to in terms of ex ante parameters, ex post tests cannot be accepted as an ultimate rejection of the CAPM and its parameters (Levy 1997147). The CAPM should be judged on the basis of insights it provides into the risk/return relationship. Without the CAPM, the knowledge of the capital market and the market con ditions would have been very limited (Karnosky 199356). Every three out of four CFOs use CAPM model to estimate the cost of capital. (Source Graham and Harvey (2001). Corporate managers in U.S. confirmed in a survey the use of CAPM as a key tool for capital budgeting. Current MBA aspiring(prenominal) are taught to use CAPM for estimating cost of capital.The CAPM should be continued with both individual tests and multi-factor models joint tests such as APT. Such testing will help reasonableness of the stock market pricing mechanism and the risk/return relationship. The capital asset pricing model has been employed in a wide variety of academic and institutional applications such as measuring portfolio performance, testing of market efficiency, identifying under and overvalued securities, capital budgeting etc. Apart the model have also been used in business by analyst, researchers and firms.CAPM has been the basis for modern capital market theory since 30 years, but with the emerge nce of new equity markets around the universe during the last few years, accumulating research has increasingly created doubt on the models ability due to many cases arising where the model is not able to explain the correct style of assets return. Despite its limitations and shortcomings, the CAPM model is a popular tool in the investment analysis. The simplicity of the model towards description of the equilibrium has made it quite popular among the users even today. There are other factors i.e. taxes, inflation, liquidity, and market capitalization and price earnings ratios apart from beta which affect required returns What believed is CAPM have significantly contributed to the security pricing theory, but applied in practice has got some defects and for which an extended CAPM should be applied or have to look for a new better model which should not have any deficiencies. The CAPM model is for sure here to stay and attempts will continue to improve the model and to make it more useful.

The evolution of Guerilla marketing

The development of Guerilla merchandisingThe aim of this investigate proposal is to critically evaluate how rebel trade has evolved to cope with the ever diversifying market environment in the up-to-the-minute sparing turning point. This proposal give analyse the do that the nook has had on guerrilla merchandising and its applications within the merchandising community.The come across leave deal specifically with the guinea pig of rebel marketing and how it has evolved to cope with the diversifying marketing environment in the current economic box, so on that point must be a series of objectives that will demonstrate how best to achieve the proposes aim.Th fierce this explorethe effects of the recession on marketing and its trends will be evaluated.the issue of Guerrilla marketing increasing in its applications naturally over succession will be consideredOr whether it has increased in correlation to recession and the effects that it has brought to the marke ting community will be investigatedThe issue to which Guerrilla merchandise has or has not replaced live or more(prenominal) traditional techniques in the current economic climate will be explored.Saunders comments that look objectives atomic number 18 more generally acceptable to the seek community as evidence of the researchers clear sense of purpose and conditionion. (Saunders, Lewis Thornhill 2009)This will be achieved through a demonstration of why the research is all important(p) and has to be conducted.The Literature Review will provide an awareness of preceding literature, a critical check extinct of the literature concerning Guerrilla market in the recession and the give away issues arising from these works regarding the aim of the proposal.The Research Methodology will identify how best to conduct the research itself, whether it be through primary or thirdhand research and how best to analyse and interpret the results.The Proposed Time Scale will degree a timetable for conducting all looks of the research proposal and project.From this it hoped that there will be a better understanding of how the current economic recession has oppositioned on the evolution of Guerrilla Marketing, whether it has had to evolve at a faster rate in put to combat the ever changing marketing environment and whether possible changes in marketing budgets that companies vex available oblige had a direct impact on this.Through the implementation of the objectives stated previously, this should be an achievable research project.Importance of the ResearchJay Conrad Levinson is widelyly regarded as the father of Guerrilla Marketing. He has compose several bears on the topic. He is a former Vice President and Creative subscribe toor at J. Walter Thompson Advertising and Leo Burnett Advertising. He is also the lead of Guerrilla Marketing International. Guerrilla Marketing is defined as Tactics available to every small firm to compete with bigger firms b y clipping out narrow, profitable niches. These tactics include 1) extreme specialisation, 2) aiming every effort at favourably impressing the customers, 3) providing service that goes beyond the customers expectation, 4) fast response time, 5) quick reversal of jobs, and 6) working hours that match the customers requirements. (Business Dictionary 2009)With the tough economic climate, companies are increasingly having to use more cost effective marketing techniques to stay ahead of the competition. This research will expand upon Levinsons previous work and relate the applications and evolution of Guerrilla Marketing to a marketing environment in a recession.Significant antecedent Research/ Literature ReviewThe review of the literature on real prior research is crucial when carrying out a research proposal. In this case, it is important to be aware of studies or research that have been carried out previously on the topic of the evolution of Guerrilla Marketing to cope with the ev er diversifying marketing environment in the current economic recession. The synopsis of the literature will show that people whitethorn support or disprove a feature theory or speculation. It is essential in the literature review to be critical, as an argument cannot be made if it just supports one standpoint. It must and thenly reflect all sides and aspects of the research topic.The choice of literature to be reviewed is extremely important. It is crucial that all the sources referenced are relevant to the topic area and that they are of suitable academic standard. several(prenominal) sources of previous literature will now be examined.Guerrilla Marketing During Tough Times is written by celebrated Guerrilla Marketing author Jay Conrad Levinson. The book is directed at business owners. This book has exceptional greatness as it demonstrates the claim for Guerrilla Marketing in increasingly tough economic environments. It comments on the need for there to be better creativity in marketing in times when there are stricter restraints on time and budgets for marketing. He comments that the guerrilla lives by different rules during tough economic times than during boom times. The guerrilla attacks when the competition retreats and the attack is concentrated where the guerrilla offers specific service or product advantages. Levinson goes onto say that retreating companies leave a void in the market, which is an ideal niche for guerrilla marketing companies. (Levinson 2006)Levinson further highlights the extremity for distinction and making the marketing unique. This book is of significance due to the importance Levinson places on being able to market in a way that is more cost effective and time sensitive than competitors. This is all made relevant to the increasingly tough economic climate he comments on which is at the boob of this research proposal.Guerrilla Marketing Easy and Inexpensive Strategies for Making Big Profits From Your Small Business is an other book from Jay Conrad Levinson. This is a significant scrap of literature as it highlights in great detail how Guerrilla Marketing has evolved. The book was published in 2007 and is a seminal act in the outline of how Guerrilla Marketing has evolved in the twenty-first century in relation to traditional marketing methods. The book highlights how in the current economy Guerrilla Marketing combats smarter and more sophisticated competition. (Levinson, Levinson Levinson 2007)It details how to develop a Guerrilla Marketing plan to best deal with competitors. He further highlights the need for innovation and how Guerrilla Marketing has evolved on an ad-hoc basis through various new media such(prenominal) as the internet. This text supports his literature mentioned previously and is central to the aims and objectives of this proposal.Even More repellent Marketing by Hugh Davidson provides a basis for how marketing strategies have evolved over time. It stresses the need for ther e to be constant innovation in marketing. Davidson comments that Offensive Marketing requires a dedication to both strategy and planning. (Davidson 1997) This book details how Guerrilla Marketing has evolved out of necessity in order for marketers to be pioneering and ahead of the competition. Although the book makes no direct reference to Guerrilla Marketing, it does provide the foundation for how it has come to adopt such an important role in current marketing strategies and shows the need for constant innovation in marketing.Ethnography for Marketers is a journal article from Qualitative Market Research An International Journal. This journal is a significant piece of literature as it describes how marketers have become increasingly more reliant upon Guerrilla Marketing techniques through methods such as Ethnography Marketing. It details how the marketing community is increasingly having to adopt new techniques to cope with an ever changing marketing environment. (Desai 2008)Guer rilla marketing is a journal article written by Andrew Ashwin. It is a relevant source for the proposal as Ashwin highlights the fact that guerrilla marketing is an unconventional approach to marketing and has become increasingly popular over recent years. He highlights the link amidst it and the fact that there are somewhat limited marketing budgets for companies, particular smaller ones. This will draw upon the evolution of Guerrilla Marketing into the recession. (Ashwin 2006)Guerrilla marketing for reading services is a journal article from Guido Baltes and Isabell Leibing. The article describes how Guerrilla Marketing is an unconventional strategy. It details major differences in it from traditional marketing methods, such as cost effectiveness and the applications of Guerrilla Marketing towards information services which as time moves further into the 21st century, becomes increasingly more important. (Baltes, Leibing 2008)The IPA Bellwether Summary 2009 from WARC provides u p to third quarter information on marketing budgets for the 300 biggest UK companies, it gives reference to the market break down as well. This is a very true source of information. (Whiteside 2009a)Hairy need not apply is a scholars article from Marketing Research which shows the working applications of Guerrilla Marketing in the current economic climate. The article gives information on a campaign by Air New Zealand that used a Guerrilla Marketing technique in order to speed up queues at check-in order to reduce the layover time in airports, which would make the airline more cost effective. (Grapentine 2009)In order for the literature review to be comprehensive and critical of all aspects of the aims and objectives, other sources of literature that may conflict or come to the fore critical to the literature already listed must be examined. Essentials of Marketing by Jim Blythe is a book of relevancy to this research proposal as it describes the essential aspects of marketing. B lythe goes into detail regarding the marketing environment in which companies operate through methods such as SWOT (Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities and Threats) and PEST (Political, Economic, Social and Technological) analysis. (Blythe 2008)This provides a comprehensive account of the factors that may disturb or influence which particular style of marketing companies may adopt in light of the economic recession. An example of this would include the Political and Economic effects the recession will have on the evolution or use of Guerrilla Marketing as a marketing strategy.Through the various forms of analysis Blythe can be critical of the evolution of Guerrilla Marketing. Levinsons message behind Guerrilla Marketing is about crushing the potential impact of competition by staying ahead of the competition, yet Blythe comments that there should be more cooperation and not as much fighting between competitors which is contrary to the previous literature from Levinson.Marketing s trategy and Competitive Positioning by Graham Hooley et al. is a book that is not essentially critical of the increasing use of Guerrilla Marketing as a weapon for marketers in the recession, but rather highlights alternative confrontation marketing strategies. The alternative strategies include Frontal Attack, Flanking Attack, Encirclement Attack and Bypass Strategy. (Hooley, Saunders Piercy 2004) This source is of relevance as it serves to demonstrate that Guerrilla Marketing strategies are not the only option for marketers who wish to have a high impact campaign and that there may not be a direct correlation between the evolution of Guerrilla Marketing and the recession.All the literature that has been mentioned is of direct relevance and importance to the research proposal and the aims and objectives of the report.Research MethodologyThis section of the research proposal is very important as it indicates how the research on the topic (A critical military rating of how Guerrilla Marketing has evolved to cope with the ever diversifying marketing environment in the current economic recession) will be carried out. The approach adopted to the research focuses on the aims and objectives. The beat and type of information collected and through what means, will be described and its relevance to the topic clarified. The methodology provides the avenue through which results can be analysed and interpreted.Phase 1The first phase of the methodology is to conduct a literature review. The literature review shows what prior research has or has not been carried out. It shows the extent to which research has been carried out and will uphold to formulate a structure for the collection and analysis of selective information, whether it be primary or secondary sources of data.The literature review was carried out previously, there are several seminal pieces of literature that are of specific importance to the research. Levinson has written several books on Guerrilla Marketi ng. He makes particular reference to the diversifying nature of the marketing environment and how Guerrilla Marketing is used as a method for attracting and keeping customers.Several other sources mentioned highlight the practical application Guerrilla Marketing with particular reference to the effect of recession and the effects it is having upon existing or traditional marketing trends.However in order for the literature review to be objective, sources have been examined that are critical of the standpoints taken by Levinson and other authors in regard to Guerrilla Marketing.The nature of this research will be inductive as it will provide the basis to fulfil the aims and objectives of the research project. The nature of the research topic is such that no clear hypothesis can be made. The data will be collected and examined and patterns will be sought within the data. The inductive approach will allow for the acceptance of different research techniques that will enable the researc h to cater for the restrictions on time, access to information and types of analysis used to interpret the results. (Saunders, Lewis Thornhill 2009) The research onion on a lower floor can help to show which research strategies will be used and why.(Saunders, Lewis Thornhill 2009)(Saunders, Lewis Thornhill 2009, Saunders, Lewis Thornhill 2009, Levinson, Levinson Levinson 2007)Phase 2In order to fully understand the research project and make it accurate, the proposal must centre on the questions that need answered and the objectives of the research. The aims and objectives are essentially the research questionThe research project will deal specifically with the topic of Guerrilla Marketing and how it has evolved to cope with the diversifying marketing environment in the current economic recession. So in order to fulfil the aim of this project there must be a series of objectives that will demonstrate how best to go about achieving the aims.Through this research an evaluation of the effects of the recession in marketing and its trends will examined.Has Guerrilla Marketing increased in its applications naturally over time?Or has it increased in correlation to recession and the effects that it has brought to the marketing community.The examination of the extent to which Guerrilla Marketing has or has not replaced existing or more traditional techniques in the current economic climate.Therefore the design of the research to be carried out must reflect the type of data that will be collected and how the results will be analysed and interpreted. Extracting the justly answers lies in the design approach. (Jankowicz 2005)This research will be an exploratory matter of the evaluation of how Guerrilla Marketing has evolved to cope with the ever diversifying marketing environment in the current economic recession. Adams and Schvaneveldt comment that exploratory research can be likened to the activities of the explorer or traveller. The major advantage with such an a pproach, is that it is flexible and adaptable to change. This research design allows for freedom to change direction in the light of new data or information that may appear. (Adams, Schvaneveldt 1991)Whilst the initial direction of the select may be broad, it will become narrower as the research process continues.Phase 3The Research Strategy must address the aims and objectives of the proposal. The objectives of the proposal (below) will help to determine what level of secondary data must be analysed and interpreted in order to best show what type of primary data should be collected.Through this research an evaluation of the effects of the recession in marketing and its trends will examined.Has Guerrilla Marketing increased in its applications naturally over time?Or has it increased in correlation to recession and the effects that it has brought to the marketing community.The examination of the extent to which Guerrilla Marketing has or has not replaced existing or more traditional techniques in the current economic climate.In order to fulfil the aims and objectives of this research proposal, (Saunders, Lewis Thornhill 2009) comments that it is prudent to reanalyse data that has already been collected for some other purpose. This data is known as secondary data. Secondary data can include figures, reports and published work. With the nature of this study in relation to the recession, comparative data available from databases will be crucial. Secondary data has many advantages the data is of high quality i.e. is peer reviewed, it can be comparative and longitudinal thus helping to show possible trends over an extended period of time. (Saunders, Lewis Thornhill 2009)The literature mentioned in the literature review will provide a foundation for the research. Several of the works relate directly to the evolution of Guerrilla Marketing. They are known as Documentary Secondary data. (Saunders, Lewis Thornhill 2009) The opinions and standpoints that scholars and experts take on the area of research play a huge role in the development and refinement of the research. The quality of the data that is analysed will have a huge bearing on the rigourousness of the research. These literary sources will provide information on the evolution of Guerrilla Marketing a turn inst traditional marketing techniques.A Keynote report Direct Marketing 2009 is a very useful source of secondary data as it gives a large amount of information on the market size of the marketing industry, what sectors have been affected by the recession, how budgets have been altered and how trends have been affected by the recession. (Keynote 2009)Another Keynote report which is of great value to the research is Direct Marketing Services 2008. It gives the accounts filed for 3 years of marketing companies and agencies up to April 2007. This report will provide a lot of accurate and up to date information on marketing activities leading up to the recession. For companies to be inc luded in the report they must generate 50% of their turnover from activities relating to the report and be of significant size within the industry. (Keynote 2008b)B2B Marketing 2008 from Keynote gives information on marketing trends and how B2B marketing compares to B2C marketing. This report will highlight possible trends that can be bony from the research. (Keynote 2008a)The IPA Bellwether Report 2009 from WARC provides up to third quarter information on marketing budgets for the 300 biggest UK companies, it gives reference to the market breakdown as well. This is a very good piece of secondary data. This report will help in the drawing of conclusions from the research. (Whiteside 2009a)Recession Marketing again from WARC provides a series of articles on Recession Innovation, Consumer Behaviour, Consumer Recovery, bust Budgeting and Plans for the Downturn. These articles give particular reference to the effects of the recession on marketing trends and the evolution of offensive marketing techniques. (Whiteside 2009b)The collection of secondary data within this study should ultimately lead to the collection of primary data. The collection of primary data will be achieved through querys. But who will be interviewed, why and what topics will be covered in the interviews relative to the aims and objectives of the research? The importance of the interview is to gather qualitative information on the research topic. A qualitative interview is a term used for unstructured and or semi-structured interviews aimed at gathering qualitative data. Qualitative data is data that does not have a direct numerical value as it has not been quantified. (Saunders, Lewis Thornhill 2009)In order to gather information of the highest validity and reliability, a wide range of interviews will take place. With this in mind, the degree of access to possible interviewees plays a huge role in the interview selection. The sampling strategy for the interviews is very important. It will n ot be operable to interview every marketing company within the UK or every company that has used Guerrilla Marketing within the UK. As such, the interview archetype will be a non-probability sample. (Saunders, Lewis Thornhill 2009) This is because for the research to be of the highest possible validity and reliability the interviews will not be selected statistically. Since the sample must be meditative of the aims and objectives of the research, it will be a Purposive sample. (Saunders, Lewis Thornhill 2009)Two representatives from the Chartered Institute of Marketing have been contacted and are willing to give interviews. These representatives will give semiprecious insight into the developing trends within marketing.M2S Consultancy from Portadown will provide valuable insight into the area of B2B planning and marketing in Northern IrelandIAS Smarts is an advertising company that has carried out notable advertising campaigns within the non-profit sector in Northern IrelandA representative from Invest NI from will be able to provide data on the effects of offensive marketing strategies for companies in Northern Ireland and information on possible correlations within marketing in the recessionMillward Brown, a marketing company in Northern Ireland that has a contract with Newtownabbey Borough Council, will provide valuable insight into the extent to which Guerrilla Marketing is a feasible marketing strategy for public sector organisations.A representative from The Institute of Practitioners in Advertising can provide valuable insight into whether the applications of Guerrilla Marketing have evolved naturally over time or in correlation to the recession.A representative from Virgin Atlantics marketing department can give information from the aspect of a company that has used Guerrilla Marketing techniques in previous campaigns . The extent to which the campaigns have been a success or failure will be relative to possible turnover figure and quarterly repo rts.The interviews will be non-standardised and semi-structured in format. (Saunders, Lewis Thornhill 2009) This format will allow for information on a wide a varying topic area to be gathered from participants who have wide ranging areas of expertise and can provide information covering the aims and objectives of the proposal. The semi-structured format will allow for the omission or inclusion of particular topics relative to each interviewee. The qualitative nature of the interviews will provide the ability to probe for in-depth information and gain a better understanding of the research collected previously from the secondary data. For the interviews to yield the best information a pilot of the interviews will be affiliate with two representatives from the Chartered Institute of Marketing and a representative from the Institute of Practitioners in Advertising. From the pilot, feedback will be gathered and possible changes made to interview structures and topic areas covered bef ore the final interviews are carried out.The interviews will cover a broad range of topics that are ethical to the research. The topics areas will allow for the interviewees to expand on topics depending on their particular area of expertise. The topics covered will be relative to the aims and objectives. Here is a broad outline of the topics to be coveredThe extent of their thing in marketingTheir role within said organisationWhat the organisations role isThe extent of their knowledge of Guerrilla Marketing and its applicationsOpinions on Guerrilla Marketing in the marketing communityThe evolution of marketing strategiesnaturally or as a correlation with the restrictions.The extent to which traditional marketing techniques have been replaced by Guerrilla MarketingThe longevity of Guerrilla Marketing StrategiesThe extent to which it has helped said organisationPossible marketing strategies, post-recessionThe effect the recession has had on said organisation and what marketing strat egies have been adopted.From this qualitative research it is hoped that a sufficient amount of data can be gathered, along with the secondary data, that results can be formulated and the aims and objectives of this inductive study can be met.Phase 4The next phase of the methodology is the analysis and interpretation of the results using the data gathered previously. The structure and nature of the secondary sources is such that, it is hoped possible trends or correlations may appear. This research is based upon qualitative research and although it has no direct numerical value, the data still needs to be interpreted and understood.The first stage is then to transcribe the interviews. The interviews will be audio recorded and then word processed. The nature in which the interviews are liberation to take place will require that notes are taken on interviewee appearance, attitude and facial expressions when talking about certain topics relative to the study.As the research is followin g an inductive and exploratory approach it is not necessary to have clearly defined theoretical framework. Instead relationships can be identified between the data and hypothesis developed to test these. Theory emerges from the process of data collection and analysis. (Saunders, Lewis Thornhill 2009)(Saunders, Lewis Thornhill 2009) go on to highlight three main ways of radical dataCategorisation of meaningsThe structure of meanings, using narrationThe condensation of meanings.Using the three types of data processing mentioned earlier along with analytic aids such as summaries or a researchers diary, this should enable the qualitative data to be reliable and valid. From the data there should be a comprehension of the results, an integration of link up data drawn from different sources, key or recurring themes should be identified for further exploration, theories should be tested based on these patterns and conclusions drawn from the results gathered. (Saunders, Lewis Thornhill 2 009)TimetableIn order to conduct the research project to the highest possible standard a timetable for the completion of each stage of the research process is crucial. The timetable has to be realistic considering the amount of work to be completed, the amount of access to data and data processing.Week 1 4th January 2010 (1 week)Formulate Research IdeaWeek 2 eleventh February 2010 (1 week)Outline Aims and Objectives of ResearchWeek 3 18th January 2010 (2 weeks)Literature ReadWeek 4 25th January 2010Week 5 1st February 2010 (2 weeks)Start makeup Literature ReviewWeek 6 8th February 2010Week 7 fifteenth February 2010 (2 weeks)Collect Secondary and Primary DataWeek 8 twenty-second February 2010Week 9 1st March 2010 (2 weeks)Write up and Analysis of DataWeek 10 8th March 2010Week 11 15th March 2010 (1 week)Finish and submit draft for feedbackWeek 12 22nd March 2010 (1 week)Submit finished and corrected projectThe timetable should provide a rough outline for the completion of the projec t and will allow enough time to complete each section of the report.

Marketing Strategies Used By Nokia

Marketing Strategies Used By NokiaIn order to execute the project on extend to I give birth select Nokia. Nokia was founded by Fredrik Idestamin in 1865 as public limited troupe. Nokia is leading the cellular telecommunicate industry with well-nigh 38% of the market component part, while Motorola, which is Ameri tummy based is having 12% of enumerate market sh ar. Nokia used be a diversified conglomerate up till 1980 with business includes pulp, rubber tire returnion, paper, telecommunication equipment, cable manufacturing, and consumer electronics. The geographic gull market of Nokia was mainly limited to Scandinavia (70% market sh be) and US (33% market shargon) (123helpme, 2010). It should be noned that Nokia had never enjoy monopoly in any market including Finland and the beau monde treat is due to its war-ridden trade schema, state of the art harvest-tide designing and manufacturing, pricing strategies and creative selling campaigns. The lodge has constant testi fy of launching modern product that either low costs or cutting-edge technology, and flair involve not yet been stopped. These two characteristics of the firm are giving it hawkish advantage and the society is still the most profitable participation of the rambling- echo manufacturing industry (Kumar, Banthia, Sharma, 2010).Nokia headquarter in situated in Espoo, Finland. The Research and Development wings of the social club are situated in 10 countries around the globe. The device manufacturing factories of the company are located in nine countries while the company transacts its business in much than 150 countries of the world. In this paper we going to investigate that how does a Finnish organization become a world leader in the highly in advance(p) cutting-edge industry from the marketing viewpoint?Importance and the use of teaching in their Marketing Strategies of NokiaIn the decade 1990s the telecommunication industry around the globe experience three square positi ve changes that sets the foundation for future growth. These three trends were increase in the use of internet, deregulations of the market that led to easy rise to power for new competitor and the advent and popularization of wireless services. Nokia then adapted the three strategies in its marketing computer programme. This was a mega turn in the history of Nokia.In order to get the exploit the opportunities provided by the environmental factors and decrease the potential demerits of changes that might have impact on the business, Nokia initiated an information system project. It has decided to place an information system that bequeath facilitate decision agreer across the organization in its various functional departments. For this sake Nokia takes advantage of Management Information System (MIS), Decision Support System (DSS), Executive Information System, Transaction Processing System (TPS) etc. Through the use of these systems the organization not merely was able to mana ge the organization effectively and efficiently but was also able to coordinate its unalike RD departments (that are situated in 10 countries), its manufacturing facilities (that are situated in 9 different countries) and its distribution networks that situated in 150 countries.Organizational Marketing strategy Used by NokiaOrganizational strategyNokia historical logo was three arrows that were created in 1966, the company then devise its presently used organizational slogan connecting people. This slogan was design by Ove Strandberg. The company is the world 6th most loved and fastest growing brand of the world. All this was possible due to Nokia consistent organization wide supportive culture, overlap values and vision.The vision statement of Nokia is our vision is a world where everyone is connected, and its promise is Our promise is to help people feel close to what is important to them. The approach the company used for to achieve this objective is Trusted consumer relati onships, Best mobile devices everywhere, and Context enriched services (Nokia, 2010).Marketing StrategyIn order to achieve its organizational objectives, the marketing wing of the Nokia is doing remarkable job. In the following we explored different aspects of the marketing strategy used by Nokia.Market SegmentationGeographic Both Rural and urban areasDemographic Male and FemaleAge 22-50 (almost 80% of the sales comes from this segmentConsumer Segments All the three types of users including high-users, medium users and light-users. (Kumar, Banthia, Sharma, 2010)Product StrategyThe focus of the marketing labors of Nokia is mostly on handset manufacturing only. The company is constantly enhancing its product portfolio by inventing constantly new models. The mobile phones that are manufactured by Nokia have two various(a) focuses either low costs or cutting-edge technology. The products of the company are choose as per the specific markets situation. For example handsets distribut ed in Middle East have an Arabic language function, while in France the language is tailored as French.Branding StrategyNokia use two types of branding strategies. It is due to the fact that its score market consumer consists of two types of customers Upscale misdirecters and Economy seeker. For upscale buyer the company built its brand with high-end multimedia handsets, while for economy seeker in emerge markets its branding strategy focuses on providing economical handsets (123helpme, 2010).Pricing StrategiesThe pricing strategies used by Nokia vary from situation to situation and from product to product. For cutting-edge technological products that are newly designed by the company RD, the company use first the skimming marketing strategy, and then decrease the price. While for cost-effective products that focus on economy, the company use penetrating pricing strategy.Promotion StrategyThe company success can be traced to the excellent promotion activities carried out by the o rganization. The company use integrated marketing communication to promote its various products in different region of the world. The promotion activities are directed toward replacementPlace StrategyThe company distribution network is situated in 150 countries, and the company is still using its aggressive marketing strategy to boost its network, and market cultivation strategy to level new markets from around the world. Nokia has come up with new place strategy by opening of the retail outlets known as Nokia Priority.Nokia in the Global ContextNokia has successfully used its marketing strategy to target diverse customers from around the world. Its products are equally used by rural as well as people belong to the urban areas. The company is using the right blend of standardization and adaptation. By studying the global market strategy of Nokia one can argue that Nokia standardized its products when possible and customize its products when needed. For example Nokia introduced its dust-resistant mobile phone with anti-slip grip and flash light in less essential markets including India, Pakistan, Bangladesh etc. the product was customized according to the needs and wants of the rural market of the people living in these countries. Such sort of commitment to the needs and wants satisfaction of the target market by Nokia shows Nokia genuine commitment towards the local customers needs.The competition in the global market for Nokia is change magnitude with the passage of time. As the market for cellular phone is passing through the growth stage of product life cycle, constant entrance of new cellular phone manufacture is continued. The competition for Nokia includes Motorola, Sony Ericson, Samsung, Siemens, Panasonic, NEG, Toplux and Sagem and many more. In order to keep its share in the international market Nokia must continue to exploit its competitive advantage to get ahead of competitors. It needs to have more focused marketing strategy.Nokia late arrival of can-bar phone and missed design trends like clamshell phones are some of the factors that has led to decrease in the market share of the company (Kiley, 2007). Nokia market share was 66% in 1999, which now stood at 38% (2009), it means that although in terms of sales its gross is increasing with the passage of time, but in terms of market share, competitors are capturing niche from Nokia.Nokia is using aggressive marketing strategy in the global market. Since 1997, the company has acquired 37 companies around the world. The acquisition includes, Cellity a mobile software company, OZ Communications of Canada, Navteq which is a U.S. base supplier for a price of $8.1 billion, and Enpocket supplier of mobile advert technology and many more (Kumar, Banthia, Sharma, 2010). These acquisitions have strengthened the market standing of Nokia, and help the company to boost its competitive advantage.The global sales of Nokia are increasing and the organization is constantly using four type s of strategies to increase its sales in the global market. Nokia is increasing its sales in its existing market of already operational products through increase strong positioning strategy, promotion activities, and competitive pricing strategies, and thus company is able to increase the sales for its products. The company has constant record of launching new product that is either low costs (that target low-income group) or cutting-edge technology (that target upper-upper and upper-middle kinsperson of the market), and flair have not yet been stopped. New market offer exciting opportunities to Nokia and the company is continuing to explore new market in the world. Currently the distribution network of the company has been established in 150 countries in all the continents of the world.The company now developed multifunctional cell phones, and continued to put up its business in significant on the rise markets such as India, China, Middle East and Indonesia where the target market are still looking for reliable hardware. The strategy is working for Nokia and over the year it has been able to launch series of new version in the global market. And Nokia is now looking to target 200 million middle class population of China for whom the company has developed customized products that costs under 63$ (Kiley, 2007).On the opposite hand, the situation in US is quite different. Thats why the company is using different strategy to target that market. In US market growth is tough because the market is driven by cell-service provider. For example Verizon Communication parcel out phone to customer at subsidized rate to its target market. Nokias relations in US with cell phone operator are not as strong as those of competitors that are why the company is suffering in this front.To tackle this trend, Nokia have reportedly spends $5.4 million in 2007 and $2 million in 2008 on lobbying in the U.S. market to hold its market share. The strategy was very successful for the fi rm, as it resulted in favorable political environment for the company. Had the company adopted the same strategy in before the results for the company must have been quite different and it must have not lost its market share in the US market? On the other hand the condition is quite change as compared to condition in US and the consumers can buy the cell-phone of ones own choice, and then shop for their service.In order to take advantage of favorable market conditions Nokia has joined hands with Siemens Networks and formed a correlative venture in 2006. Nokia Siemens Networks services are available in 150 countries around the world. Both the companies have merged their fixed line and mobile phone network equipment business to create the worlds biggest network. This has resulted in 1.5 billion Euros for Nokia in year 2009.Nokia e-Business StrategyFor Nokia e-business is not just limited to web presence to make easy buying selling. Nokia is exploiting the collective power of the inte rnet and IT to vitally convert its strategic business strategies and business processes. Nokia is one of the successful ventures of the world that is using the e-commerce and e-business response in its flair to build successful relation with its target market. Nokia e-business is known as Nokia Payment Solution that was initiated in 2001 (Nokia, 2010). The Nokia Payment Solution is unique program that enables payment service providers to mediate payments between three parties including financial institutions, distributor and consumers. This platform allow Nokia to collect, manage and clear payment initiated from mobile phone and other web-enabled terminals all the way through different payments methods including debit cards, credit cards, operators prepaid and postpaid system.Nokia provides Nokia Signet Server that serves the purpose of verification and payment transaction of non-repudiation through digital signatures. The verification and digital signature connecting the client an d server are satisfied using the wireless Public Key Infrastructure (PKI) technology.On the other hand Nokia is using its e-Business strategy to successfully integrate its various divisions across the world. Nokia factories are situated in 10 countries, and its RD wings are situated in 9 countries. E-business provides an opportunity to Nokia to cut its costs dramatically through e-procurement, which is as a way for Nokia to better track and manage their purchasing.Nokia also provides various blogs in an effort to know its target market. This e-chat provides Nokia a form of technical and customer support is an excellent example of its customer focused e-business strategy. This e-business strategy that supplement Nokia traditional phone support is a system that saves precious time for Nokia while providing opportunities to know its customer more deeply.Nokia e-business strategy has helped the marketing strategist to better plan their product offerings, keeping in view the latest trend s of the market. The products are designed and manufactured keeping in view the needs and wants of its target market. Through the use of e-business the marketing department is able to develop and retain its valued customers. Nokia website provides online support to its valued customer in the form of free download (music, video, themes, etc), software solution, and integration of different task related to products. . This had helped the company not only in creation long-lasting, and satisfied customer creation but also helped the company to prolong the product life cycle of its various products.On the other hand Nokia has formed strategic partnership with Facebook. Facebook is a social network website that connects people and work as link between them. This had provided remarkable opportunity to Nokia, because the Facebook application for Nokia is available for download in more than 150 countries. Nokia is the only mobile company of the world whose handsets can be connected to Facebo ok. This has created a world of opportunities for both Nokia and Facebook. (Nokia, 2010)ConclusionOver the last two decades the mobile-phone market has gone through tremendous changes, with unbelievable products and rapid growth in the market. The growth of the market is still continued. Nokia is using its creative marketing strategies to hold its market share through strong positioning and competitive strategy in order to beat the competition. The company sales performance has been increase dramatically in the past few years, although it has lost a luck of its market share to new rivals in the market. If the company continue to tailor its marketing strategies according to the needs and wants of the target market, its chances for success in the market will increase even more.

TRAFFIC MANAGEMENT ADVISOR :: essays research papers

AbstractThe Traffic Management Advisor (TMA) is part of the FAAs Free evasion program which has been on going for the past 12 years in an attempt to enable controllers the means in which to manage airspace and reduce delays at airports safely and more efficiently. It uses shoot plan information along with environmental concerns to aide controllers in sequencing arrivals at airports and makes recommendations for concern patterns to aide in undue congestion. The TMA has boosted skill of the air traffic controllers and helped in fuel efficiency and safety for the airlines, passengers and crews. The Concept of the Traffic Management AdvisorThe Traffic Management Advisor (TMA) is used to aide the air traffic controllers and coordinators thru graphical map, which display alerts, when dealing with aircraft when they are on the outer meter, meter fixed, final approach and threshold for landing at an airport. The TMA schedules and sequences measure for their orbits and landings at airp orts which take a lot of the stress and calculations away from the controllers. It also schedules their landing runways for the aircraft which helps with separation and safety of the aircraft. It does this by computing their speed and approach angles which laughingstock be seen on a live Doppler type of screen.The TMA system relies on eight processes which include the following 1) the communications manager which shares information between its databases, 2) the radio detection and ranging daemon which has a link between the TMA and the controllers computer, 3) the weather daemon which uses weather information from the national weather service, 4) the timeline graphical user interface which receives and uses information from the traffic management controllers computer, 5) the route analyzer which decides which route the aircraft will use, 6) the planview graphical user interface which uses input from the controllers and displays the information, 7) the trajectory synthesizer which determines the estimated time of arrival and the descent visibleness of the aircraft, and 8) the dynamic planner which determines the runway and the sequences of the other incoming traffic.The TMA computes the aircrafts schedule and sequencing between 40 and 200 miles from the airport, even before they have reached the airports controlled airspace. All of this information comes from the aircrafts flight plan and the TMA has the ability to adjust runway assignments and the sequencing of the aircraft also due to environmental conditions or in response to the input by the controllers.

Irvings American Progeny Essay -- essays papers

Irvings American Progeny majuscule Irving had the unique opportunity of aid a new nation forge its own identity. America, fresh out of the revolution, looked for an author to take charge and create something that seemed to be missing from the newly born(p) nation. He took this responsibility seriously and made a mythology that founded an American literary tradition. He took bits and pieces from the Old World and incorporated them into the New in such a manner that what he wrote appeared original, and yet tied into a tradition that was centuries old. He did this in a manner that astonished many Europeans who believed an American could never lift literature with such a strong English foundation. Although Irving relied heavily on European influence, he drew distinct lines between the American and the European and his while lines illustrate the struggle between the United States and England. This amazing period in the nations history provided an excellent backdrop for Irvings work. T he Legend of sleepyheaded Hollow (is)a celebration of the bounty of the United States, (Bowden, 72). This bounty fueled the fire of social change that was burning in the U.S. at the time. If we ever had a period during which social progress was not retarded then it was exactly the period rent slept through. In that generation we were transformed from a group of loosely bound and often provincial colonies into a cocky and independent republic with a new kind of government andas the story itself makes clear passablea whole new and new-fashioned spirit, (Young, 466). Irving took full advantage of the new scene around him, and immortalized himself by demonstrating the importance of what he saw. When I first wrote the Legend of Rip Van Winkle,... ...59) 137-149. Rpt. in A Century of description on the works on Washington Irving. Ed. Andrew B. Myers. Tarrytown Sleepy Hollow Restorations, 1976. 330-342.Roth, Martin, Comedy and America. Port Washington Kennidat, 1976.Snell, George, W ashington Irving A Revelation. The Shapers of American Fiction 1798-1947, (1947). 105-16. Rpt. in Nineteenth-Century Literary Criticism. Ed. Dennis Poupard. Vol. 2. Detroit Gale, 1982. 382-383.Springer, Haskell. Introduction to Rip Van Winkle & The Legend of Sleepy Hollow. (1974). Rpt. in A Century of Commentary on the works on Washington Irving. Ed. Andrew B. Myers. Tarrytown Sleepy Hollow Restorations, 1976. 480-486.Wagenknecht, Edward, Washington Irving Moderation Displayed. New York Oxford UP, 1962.Young, Philip, Fallen From Time Rip Van Winkle. Kenyon Review, Vol. XXII (1960) 547-73. 457-479.